1° Their names and their number. We now turn to the second group of books in the Old Testament (see volume 1, pp. 12-13). This group comprises the writings which, according to their predominant element, are called poetic, didactic, wisdom, or moral. The first of these epithets is the most commonly used today; it applies primarily to the external form. The others focus on the subject matter, and ancient authors preferred them (Saint John Chrysostom, in his Synopsis S. Script., distinguishes three parts in the Old Testament: τὸ ἐστοριχόν, τὸ πρφητιχόν, τὸ συμβουλευτιχόν. The last, the one that "advises," is equivalent to the wisdom books); they express very well the purpose and general character of this part of the Bible, in which moral teaching plays such a large role, and where the rules of true wisdom, of a holy life and according to God's heart, are so frequently instilled. In the Hebrew Bible, the poetic or wisdom books are classified in the category of Ketubim or Hagiographers, with several other inspired writings (see volume 1, p.13).
Of the forty-six books that make up the Old Testament, only eight are poetic in the strict sense of the term: 1. Job, 2. the Psalms, 3. Proverbs4° lEcclesiastes5° the Song of Songs, 6. Wisdom, 7. Sirach, 8. the Lamentations of Jeremiah. In the Septuagint and the Vulgate, the Lamentations have been linked to the Prophecy of Jeremiah. Wisdom and Sirach, which are absent from the Jewish canon, are deuterocanonical writings.
2° The poetic nature of the Bible considered as a whole. – If we take the word poetry in a broad sense, it is certain that the entire Bible is a vast and magnificent poem, and that poetic beauties are found on almost every page. At every moment, even in historical books, and much more so in the writings of the prophets, one admires, beneath the simple garb of prose, passages which, sometimes by the force and elevation of their sentiments, sometimes by their striking, magnificent imagery, rise to the very spheres of poetry. William Jones, famous for his work on Asiatic poetry (Poeseos asiaticae commentarii, (Oxford, 1774), could truthfully say: «I have read the Holy Scriptures with great attention, and I think that this volume, apart from its heavenly origin, contains more eloquence, more moral wisdom, more poetic riches, in a word, more beauties of every kind, than could be gathered from all other books together, in whatever century and in whatever language they may have been composed‘ (quoted by Sicard, Lessons on the sacred poetry of the Hebrews, translated… into French from the Latin of Dr. Lowth, t. 1, p. 10 of the 2nd edition). » A poetic breath therefore hovers over the entire Bible.
But that is not enough, for very often one finds, mixed with the prose, passages that are poetic in the strict sense. The complete list would be long; here at least are the principal ones: Gen. 1:26; 4:23-24; 5:29; 9:25-27; 14:19; 24:60; 27:28-29, 39-40; 49:1-27; Ex. 15:1-21; Num. 6:24-26; 10:35; 21:14-15, 17-18, 27-30; 23:7 ff.; Deut. 32:1 ff.; 33:1 ff.; Josh. 10:12; Jud. 5, 1 ff.; 14, 14, 18; 15, 16; 1 Reg. 2, 1-10; 18, 7; 2 Samuel 1, 18-27; 3, 33-34; 22, 1-51; 23, 1-7; 1 Kings 12, 16; 1 Chronicles 16, 8-36; Tobit 13, 1-23; Judith 16, 2-21; Isaiah 5, 1-2; 12, 1-6; 14, 4-23; 25, 1-5, 9; 26, 1-19; 27, 2-5; 38, 10-20; Dan. 3, 52-90; Jon. 2, 3-10; Hab. 3, 1 and following. And how many other pages of the prophets we could have cited.
3° Some general characteristics of biblical poetry. — Superior to all others in its aim, which is sanctification, and in its origin, which is entirely divine, the poetry of the Bible is no less, in terms of aesthetic beauty, than the most perfect works produced by human literature. Even the best teachers, rationalists, do not hesitate to acknowledge this: «it is unique in its kind, and superior to all others in many respects» (Ewald). Its simplicity and clarity are particularly praised, «which are scarcely found elsewhere»; its graces, so natural, though sublime and exquisite; its «marvelous independence from the allure of form,» even when it is at its most dazzling; its admirable fullness, which flows «to overflowing» (see Lowth, De sacra poesi Hebraeorum, Oxford, 1753; Herder, History of Hebrew Poetry, translated by Mme de Carlowitz, Paris, 1845; Mgr Plantier, Literary studies on biblical poets, Paris, 1842).
Although so elevated, and originating from a single people, Hebrew poetry is further distinguished by its universal character, which is fitting for the New Covenant as well as the Old, for the nations of the West as well as those of the East, for all parts and all ages of humanity. It is Catholic, like the book that contains it. From this perspective, there is an immeasurable distance between it and the poetry of India, Egypt, Assyria, the Arabs, etc., which is quite particular, and, so to speak, narrow, in its genre.
Another important point to note is that the poetry of the Bible is exclusively religious and sacred. From its very inception, independent of divine inspiration, it is always a product of religion: it was not historical events, military exploits, or the grandiose vistas of nature that directly gave rise to it, but religious impressions; thus, divine revelations and moral truths occupy the principal place within it; everything else is reduced to religion. The Hebrews did, however, possess secular poetry, as demonstrated by various texts of the prophets (see Isaiah 23:16; 24:9; Amos 6:5; 8:10); but it is generally agreed that it did not reach a great level of development, either because no fragments of it have survived, or because, in Israel, "intellectual and literary formation were accomplished only in conjunction with religious life."«
Another general characteristic of Hebrew poetry consists in that set of features, common to all literatures, which is summarized under the name of poetic expression. It is a more ornate, more brilliant, more distinguished language than that of simple prose; consequently, more carefully chosen and sonorous words, extraordinary constructions and combinations, especially the frequent use of figures of speech and similes. «Eastern poets differ, in this respect, from our Western poets only by a greater boldness, a more abundant profusion of metaphors, stronger hyperboles, a richer color, the vivacity of which equals that of their sun (Biblical Man, (t.2, n.588).»
Because of its inherent unity, which allowed it to sing only of God and the things of God, biblical poetry never exhibited such varied and diverse forms as secular poetry among other peoples. It can be reduced to only two genres: the genre šir (i.e.: canticle), or lyric, and the genre mašal (literally: proverb), or didactic. In the category of šir all the psalms are included, the Song of Songs and the Lamentations (and also most of the poetic passages scattered throughout the Bible, and mentioned above). To the genre mašal belong the speeches of Book of Job, despite the lyrical impulse that usually inspires them, Proverbs, L'Ecclesiastes, Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus.
4° The rhythm in Hebrew poetry, and especially parallelism, which forms its distinctive character. — There is no poetry without rhythm, that is to say, without a measured, cadenced movement of words and phrases that corresponds to the cadence of the soul's feelings, and in whose absence there would be neither harmony nor beauty. But rhythm can take many forms, and it is here that the difference between biblical poetry and other poetry becomes apparent. There is nothing particularly extraordinary about the rhythm of the words, or cadence produced by the mixture of short and long, stressed and unstressed syllables: nevertheless, the existence of a third class of syllables in Hebrew, the very short ones, gives sacred poetry a remarkable suppleness and charm, from which Moses, David, and Isaiah drew very beautiful effects (it is not our intention to discuss the quæstio vexata To what extent was Hebrew verse subject to prosodic measurement, to a meter proper? See some instructive indications in the Bible manual, t.2, nn. 597-599, and in Cornely, Historica et critiquea introductio in utriusque Testamenti libros sacros, vol. 2, part 2, pp. 14-20. We believe, with Father Cornely, that there is a great deal of arbitrariness in the most recent systems, and that no solution seems ready. For a discussion of the problem itself, compare Le Hir, THE Book of Job, Paris, pp. 188-215; Bickell, Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae, Insprück, 1879, and Carmina Veteris Testamenti metrica, Insprück, 1882; Gietmann, De re metrica Hebraeorum, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1880).
What truly characterizes biblical poetry and gives it its own distinctive stamp is what is called parallelism. As its name indicates, it consists of several clauses or phrases juxtaposed with one another like parallel lines in geometry, expressing a single thought (it was the Englishman Lowth who coined the term parallelismus). membrorum ; He was also the one who discovered and most fully expounded the law of parallelism in his famous work De sacra poesi Hebraeorum, (already cited above). For the Hebrew poet does not confine the feeling that escapes from his moved mind to a single clause; he divides it between two or more clauses that complement each other and express the idea in its full scope. For example, Genesis 4:23, from the Hebrew: Adah and Zela, listen to my voice; women of Lamech, listen to my words. I slay a man for my wound, and a young man for my bruise. Or, in the first song of Moses, Exodus 15:6 and 8: Your right hand, O God, is glorious in power; your right hand, O God, shatters the enemy… At the blast of your anger the waters piled up, the streams stood like a wall, the deep waters congealed in the midst of the sea. In these examples, we have two-part parallelism three times, and three-part parallelism once. The use of two-sided parallelism is by far the most frequent: hence the name of kappul, a "redoubling" by which ancient rabbis designated it; but tristics, and even tetrastics, are not uncommon in the Bible. Here are a few examples: Blessed is the man who does not walk in the counsel of the wicked, nor stand in the way of sinners, nor sit in the seat of mockers. Ps. 1:1. Let the enemy pursue me and attack me; let him trample my life to the ground and bring my glory down to the dust. Ps. 7:6. I loved her (wisdom) and sought her from my youth; I sought her for myself, and I was enamored of her beauty. Wis. 8:2. You will not fear the terrors of the night, nor the arrow that flies by day, nor the things that walk in darkness, nor the attacks of the devil at noonday. Ps. 90, 5-6..
It has been quite aptly said of parallelism that it is like the rhyme of thoughts and feelings; it has also been rightly compared to repeated wingbeats, to the rhythmic movement of a pendulum swinging back and forth. To break its monotony, Hebrew poets gave it different forms, which modern writers have grouped under four distinct headings: parallelism of synonymy, parallelism of synthesis, parallelism of antithesis, and simply rhythmic parallelism.
Parallelism is synonymous when the various clauses express the same thought, with only the words varying to a greater or lesser degree. Cf. Ps. 1:1; 2:1, 2, 4, 5; 3:2; 8:4, and a hundred similar passages. The symmetry of the clauses is sometimes complete; usually, nuances are introduced intentionally; almost always, there is a certain gradation in the idea. It is a reverberating echo. Give ear, O heavens, for I am about to speak. O earth, hear the words of my mouth. Let my teaching fall like rain, let my words descend like dew; like showers upon new grass, like wet rain upon tender plants. Deut. 32:1-2. Lord, do not rebuke me in your anger, nor discipline me in your wrath. Ps. 6:1. The voice of the Lord breaks the cedars, the Lord breaks the cedars of Lebanon…The Lord gives strength to his people, the Lord blesses his people in peace. Ps. 28:5-11.
While synonymous parallelism is more frequent in the Psalms, antithetical parallelism is more commonly used in the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiasticus, because, by its very form, it is well suited to the expression of moral precepts: it consists, as its name indicates, in one clause being in opposition in sentiment or language to the other. Cf. Ps. 19:8-9; Prov. 11:1, 3, 4, etc. A wise son does joy of his father, and a foolish son, his mother's grief… Hatred stirs up quarrels, but love Excuse all mistakes…The tongue of the righteous is choice silver, but the heart of the wicked is worthless. Prov. 10:1, 12, 20. Parallelism is synthetic when the thought expressed in one part is continued, completed, demonstrated, or clarified in different ways in the other part; it therefore consists only in a similarity of construction, and not in the resemblance or opposition of expressions and thoughts. Cf. Ps. 18:8-10; Prov. 30:17, etc. I cry aloud to the Lord, and he answers me from his holy mountain. I lie down and sleep, and wake again, for the Lord sustains me. Ps. 3:5-6. I will teach sinners your ways, and the wicked will return to you. Psalm 50:15. Finally, we encounter verses where the idea is expressed by a simple phrase, which can nevertheless be divided into two parts in terms of rhythm, though not in terms of subject matter: this is rhythmic parallelism. Lord, I will praise you with all my heart in the assembly and congregation of the righteous. The works of the Lord are great, exquisite according to all his will. Psalm 110:1-2. I am the man who has experienced misery by the rod of his anger. He has driven me and led me into darkness and not into light. Lamentations 3, 1-2.
The mixture of these different kinds of parallelism produces remarkable effects, which sacred poets admirably exploited (on the multiple developments of parallelism among the Hebrews, and on the methods used to embellish and embellish it, see the Man. Bibl., t. 2, n. 594.
Usually, the clauses are roughly the same length. Here and there, however, a very short clause suddenly follows one of medium length, for greater effect. Who can make clean from unclean? Not one. Job 14:4, according to the Hebrew. The fool says in his heart, “There is no God. His works are corrupt and abominable; there is no one who does right.” Psalm 13:1-2. Sometimes, too, relatively long lines are broken by a harmonious caesura: The law of the Lord is perfect, refreshing the soul; the precepts of the Lord are faithful, instructing the simple; the statutes of the Lord are right, gladdening the heart; the decrees of the Lord are pure, enlightening the eyes. Psalm 18:8-10.
Let us conclude these brief details on Hebrew poetry with what concerns the stanzas. This refers to the division and symmetrical linking of groups of thoughts, and consequently, of groups of verses. Just as the rhythm of words governs the ebb and flow of syllables, and the rhythm of verses governs the caesura and varied structure of sentence elements, so too does the rhythm of the stanzas govern the harmonious connection or separation of verses according to the laws of thought. Sometimes the stanzas of biblical poems are clearly indicated by a refrain. This is the case in Psalms 41 and 42, where the following lines are repeated four times, at roughly equal intervals: Why are you downcast, my soul? Why are you troubled? Put your hope in God, for I will yet praise him; He is the salvation of my face and my God (Cf. Ps. 39, 6, 12; 45, 8, 12; 56, 6, 12; Is. 9, 12, 17, 21, and 10, 4, etc.)
Elsewhere, an identical beginning marks the start of the stanzas (for example, in Px. 62 (Hebr.), where each stanza opens with the particle ‘'ak (verses 2, 6, 10); or the somewhat obscure expression Selah (See the commentary on Psalm 3, verse 3), omitted in the Vulgate, which indicates the end. But, most often, it is the meaning alone that determines them, and if it does so from time to time with great clarity, as in Psalms 1, 2, etc., there is usually some uncertainty regarding the division of the stanzas. Moreover, they are far from always being composed of the same number of lines (the commentary will mark them as much as possible. We will occasionally note the so-called alphabetical poems, whose different lines or stanzas are marked by the sequence of letters of the alphabet).
Rhyme, which plays such a large role in the poetry of Western languages, is found several times in biblical poems, and Hebrew, by its very nature, offers astonishing facilities in this respect (Jewish literature of the Middle Ages and more recent centuries amply demonstrates this); but it is only a very rare exception (some of the most striking examples are: Gen. 4, 23; Jud. 14, 18, and 16, 23-24; 1 Samuel 18, 7; Ps. 6, 2; 8, 5; Prov. 31, 17; Cant. 3, 11).
